From ‘Microbes’ to Agents of Peace: Conflict in Côte d'Ivoire and the case for YPS

Source: Anouk Delafortrie, European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office

By Katha Ray

Côte d'Ivoire has been plagued by violence and conflict for several decades. In 2002, a conflict erupted between government forces and the rebel groups who took control of the northern regions of the country, leading to a protracted period of violence, political instability, and human rights abuses.[1] The conflict resulted in the displacement of millions of people, economic decline, and a sharp rise in the number of youth involved in violence and criminal activities.[2] The country has been undergoing a process of national reconciliation since the end of the conflict in 2011, but challenges remain. A consequence of the conflict in Côte d'Ivoire has been the emergence of “microbes,” a term used to refer to young gang members who engage in violent activities, perceived by Ivorian civil society as ‘parasites.’[3] Youth played a significant role in the Côte d'Ivoire conflict, as they were either part of rebel groups and government forces or engaged in criminal activities. Often, they were recruited based on ethnic or regional affiliations, and their involvement in violence was due to marginalization, poverty, and lack of opportunities.[4] Post-conflict, these young people faced limited opportunities for education and employment, which has led many to engage in criminal activities, including gang violence.

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) recognized the potential catalytic role of youth in peacebuilding through the adoption of Resolution 2250 on Youth, Peace, and Security (YPS) in 2015. The resolution emphasizes the importance of involving youth in all aspects of peacebuilding, including conflict prevention, resolution, and post-conflict reconstruction. It also recognizes the unique challenges and opportunities that young people face in conflict and post-conflict contexts.[5] It is crucial to address the underlying factors that contribute to the socialization of youth toward violence since the participation of young people in violent activities can perpetuate conflict and hinder long-term peacebuilding efforts, often underutilizing the peacebuilding capacities that reside in youth themselves. The YPS agenda has gained traction in the field of peacebuilding, and its relevance to the Côte d'Ivoire conflict cannot be overstated. Youth have been disproportionately affected by the conflict and have the potential to play a crucial role in the peacebuilding process. The situation in Côte d'Ivoire and the trajectories of youth toward violence highlight the need for a more nuanced understanding of the role of youth in conflict and the importance of their participation in peacebuilding.

Under the Microscope: The Evolution of ‘Microbes’ in Côte d'Ivoire and Youth Violence Post-Conflict

Côte d'Ivoire, a former French colony in West Africa, faced a prolonged period of instability and conflict that began in 2002. The conflict was primarily driven by a power struggle between the northern and southern regions of the country, where the northern region experienced political and economic marginalization. The conflict escalated into a civil war, with the government forces and southern militias fighting against the northern-based rebel groups.[6] The violence resulted in the displacement of thousands of people, loss of lives, and significant economic damage. International intervention led to the arrest and trial of the former President Laurent Gbagbo for crimes against humanity.[7] Subsequently, a peaceful referendum was held in 2015, which led to the election of Alassane Ouattara as president.[8] However, Côte d'Ivoire still faces significant challenges in achieving sustainable peace and development.

The conflict in Côte d'Ivoire was deeply rooted in the country's history. Côte d'Ivoire experienced decades of political instability and authoritarian rule, which exacerbated existing grievances and fueled tensions. The Ivorian government, under former President Gbagbo, also implemented policies that inflamed regional and ethnic tensions, including the exclusion of northerners from citizenship and political representation, which contributed to the marginalization of certain regions and ethnic groups.[9] Furthermore, the unequal distribution of wealth and resources also played a significant role in the conflict in Côte d'Ivoire. The cocoa industry, which is a major source of revenue for the country, was controlled by a small group of elites, who monopolized the profits and excluded certain regions and ethnic groups from economic opportunities. This economic marginalization, coupled with political exclusion and discrimination, fueled tensions and contributed to the emergence of rebel groups in the north.[10] 

Côte d'Ivoire has a large youth population that has been disproportionately affected by the country's conflict, with many young people experiencing violence and trauma, and being exposed to violent ideologies and practices. According to a report by Interpeace, young people in Côte d'Ivoire were often targeted by armed groups for recruitment, with boys and girls as young as 10 years old being forced to join militias and participate in violence.[11] The impact of the conflict on young people in Côte d'Ivoire has been widely documented, with reports highlighting the physical and psychological effects of violence and trauma on their lives. The loss of family members, homes, and communities has had a significant impact on young people's sense of identity and belonging, contributing to feelings of hopelessness and despair.[12] These experiences often lead to youth being socialized into violence. Moreover, the conflict has led to a breakdown of social structures and relationships, with many young people experiencing feelings of alienation and disempowerment.

Violent youth gangs, dubbed ‘microbes’ by local people, emerged in Côte d'Ivoire after a disputed election in 2010. The term “microbes” was coined to describe their ability to infiltrate communities and spread like a disease. Ivorian society's perception of the microbes is predominantly negative. They are often seen as violent criminals who pose a threat to the safety and security of the community.[13] These gangs emerged in Abobo and Attécoubé, suburbs of Abidjan, as a result of urban expansion-fueled fractured communities and post-conflict trauma with members primarily being young people who are “marginalized victims” of the crisis.[14] Microbes typically come from poor neighborhoods and are often recruited based on ethnic or regional affiliations. They use violence to gain power and control in their communities and engage in activities such as robbery, extortion, and drug trafficking. There is incessant political exploitation of these microbes by politicians, who use them to intimidate opponents and mobilize support.[15] This exploitation further perpetuates the cycle of violence and hinders efforts toward peacebuilding and reconciliation; the failure of reconciliation efforts and inadequate opportunities for youth has left many feeling hopeless and frustrated, which can result in their involvement in violent activities 

One element upending societal structures, according to Francis Akindès, is young people’s function as breadwinners, which results in parents losing control over their offspring.[16] The progressive demise of the traditional community education model, in which the extended family and neighbors played a significant part in childcare, is another factor undermining family structures, according to sociologists and staff members of Abidjan's social centers. In Abobo and other comparable districts, the unemployment rate is exceptionally high, and a large number of people have either never attended school or have dropped out.

Ivorian youth are widely recognized as significant actors in political violence, having been victims of political instrumentalization and violent mobilization, particularly in electoral contexts.[17] Despite this, efforts to reintegrate and reutilize them have been largely ineffective. The most effective vigilance committees understand that coercive techniques and violent confrontations with juvenile gangs exacerbate hostilities while failing to solve fundamental community issues.[18] President Ouattara's administration also established commissions to promote reconciliation, disarm fighters, and probe election-related offenses. However, critics claim that the impact of those initiatives has been limited.[19]

Youth, Peace, and Security Agenda: Combatting Policy Myths and ‘Exclusion as Violence’ in Côte d'Ivoire

The Youth, Peace, and Security agenda is relatively new in the domain of conflict resolution and peacebuilding. It emerged in response to the recognition that young people are not only disproportionately affected by conflicts but also play a critical role in their prevention and resolution.[20] The YPS agenda was born out of UNSC Resolution 2250 in 2015, which recognized the potential of youth as agents of change in building and sustaining peace. Since the adoption of Resolution 2250, there has been increasing global recognition and momentum around the YPS agenda. The five pillars of action for YPS are as follows: [21]

In 2018, the UNSC adopted a resolution on the YPS agenda, emphasizing the need for member states to prioritize youth participation in peacebuilding efforts and to protect young people from violence and conflict.[22] In 2020, the UNSC adopted Resolution 2535, which highlighted the importance of the YPS agenda in preventing conflict and promoting sustainable peace. This resolution specifically called for greater inclusion of young women in peacebuilding efforts and the need to address the impact of COVID-19 on young people's participation and protection.[23] 

The YPS agenda is a significant addendum to the global conflict resolution and peacebuilding agenda for several reasons. Firstly, young people make up a significant proportion of the global population, with more than 1.8 billion people aged between 10 and 24.[24] As such, they have the potential to make a significant contribution to the promotion of peace and security. Secondly, young people are often the most affected by conflict and violence, with a higher risk of being recruited by armed groups and experiencing displacement, sexual violence, and other forms of human rights violations.[25] Therefore, empowering young people to participate in peacebuilding can help address their unique needs and concerns.

Research has shown that engaging young people in peacebuilding can have significant positive impacts on the outcomes of peace processes. For example, a study conducted by the United Nations Population Fund found that peace agreements are more likely to be successful when young people are involved in the peace process.[26] Similarly, a report by the Inter-Agency Network on Youth Development Working Group on Youth and Peacebuilding found that youth-led movements have been effective in promoting social and political change in conflict-affected countries, including in Côte d'Ivoire.[27] The YPS agenda is a crucial framework for promoting peace and security by engaging and empowering young people. By providing opportunities for participation, protection, and prevention, the YPS agenda can help address the unique needs and concerns of young people in conflict-affected areas, and promote their role as agents of change in peacebuilding.

A pioneering research study on YPS, “The Missing Peace: Independent Progress Study on Youth, Peace and Security,” highlights the role of exclusion in fostering violence among young people. The study argues that exclusion from economic, social, and political opportunities, coupled with discrimination and marginalization, can drive young people toward violence as a means of expressing their grievances and seeking power. It also identifies several policy myths as contributing to the perpetuation of violence among youth.[28] These myths include the idea that youth are inherently violent, that they lack agency and are easily manipulated by extremist groups, and that they are a homogeneous group that can be addressed through broad-brush interventions. By perpetuating these myths, policy makers often neglect to address the underlying structural factors that drive violence among young people, such as poverty, inequality, and political exclusion. The study emphasizes the need for policies that address the root causes of violence and create opportunities for young people to engage constructively in their societies.

These are problems that can be seen in the context of the microbes in Côte d'Ivoire as well. In the case of the microbes of Abidjan, policy responses often focused on the criminalization of youth violence and the use of force to suppress it.[29] This approach failed to recognize the complex social, economic, and political factors that contribute to the violence, and ignored the agency of young people themselves in seeking to address these factors.[30] Additionally, the violence of the microbes can be understood as a form of exclusion. Young people in Abidjan, particularly those living in informal settlements, face significant barriers to education, employment, and political participation.[31] These structural exclusions can lead to feelings of marginalization and powerlessness, which can fuel the desire for agency and respect through forms of violent behavior; notably, in the Ivorian case through participation in youth gangs.[32] To address these policy myths and the violence of exclusion, it is necessary to involve young people in the design and implementation of policies and programs that address the root causes of conflict and promote social inclusion.[33] 

A pivot toward youth-led peacebuilding initiatives not only focuses on reintegrating microbes but also fostering a “Peace Constituency” for youth in Côte d'Ivoire, where “citizen-based [here, youth-based] peacemaking is integral. . . not peripheral to change.”[34] Further, with a growing commitment toward local-led peacebuilding in multilateral peacebuilding efforts, there needs to be a movement away from the “top-down, Liberal Peacebuilding” and “big-P” models that prioritize the structural and technical elements of peacebuilding, as opposed to the root causes of violence, such as the exclusion and helplessness felt by microbes.[35]

From ‘Microbes’ to Agents of Peace: A Pragmatic Reframing

To address the issue of the microbes in Côte d'Ivoire, there needs to be a concerted effort to tackle the root causes of their involvement in criminal activities. This includes addressing poverty and providing young people with access to education and economic opportunities. It also requires addressing the political instability and violence that have characterized the country for the past few decades. Efforts should be made to promote social cohesion and to encourage dialogue and reconciliation between different communities in Côte d'Ivoire.

The emergence of the microbes in Côte d'Ivoire is a symptom of deeper issues in Ivorian society, including poverty, unemployment, and political instability. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that involves tackling their connection to criminal activities while promoting social cohesion and accountability. By doing so, it is possible to promote peace and stability in Côte d'Ivoire and to prevent the emergence of similar groups in the future. Youth engagement in peacebuilding efforts provides for an avenue to solve these issues. Youth can play a critical role in building sustainable peace in Côte d'Ivoire by bringing fresh ideas and perspectives, mobilizing communities, and advocating for their rights.[36] 

Several youth-led peacebuilding initiatives have already been implemented in Côte d'Ivoire. For example, Interpeace and local partner Indigo Côte D’Ivoire have focused on the reintegration of microbes, aiming to address the root causes of youth involvement in violence and provide them with opportunities for constructive engagement in society. The initiative's approach included comprehensive programs that focused on education, skill-building, and community involvement to create alternatives for the youths involved in violence.[37] Similarly, a 2013 project led by the International Centre for Transitional Justice and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) focused on amplifying the political voice of young individuals who had experienced the impact of conflict. The initiative aimed to empower these young people, providing them with a platform to share their stories and perspectives on the consequences of war. By doing so, the initiative not only contributed to the healing process but also highlighted the importance of including youth voices in the broader conversation about peace and reconciliation.[38] Youth-led peacebuilding initiatives in Côte d'Ivoire demonstrate the diverse strategies employed to address the multifaceted challenges faced by young individuals in post-conflict settings, emphasizing the importance of holistic approaches that encompass education, political participation, and economic empowerment.

In his chapter in A Handbook of International Peacebuilding: Into the Eye of the Storm, Saunders quotes a friend: “Find what is growing, and help it grow.”[39] The youth possess an ability to adapt and build back after extreme adversity; this resiliency needs to be positively harnessed by societies post-conflict. In Côte d'Ivoire, the government and civil society organizations have taken steps to promote youth participation in peacebuilding and implement the YPS agenda. However, more needs to be done to ensure that young people's voices are heard, their needs are met, and they are actively engaged in peacebuilding efforts. Some preliminary recommendations for promoting youth participation in peacebuilding and implementing the YPS agenda in Côte d'Ivoire are as follows: 

Increase Youth Representation in Decision-Making Processes: The government and civil society organizations in Côte d'Ivoire should increase youth representation in decision-making processes related to peace and security. This can be achieved by appointing young people to decision-making bodies. A Youth Advisory Board on Peace and Security can also be established to provide a platform for young people to share their perspectives and ideas on peacebuilding.

Provide Opportunities for Youth to Build Peacebuilding Skills: To enable young people to participate effectively in peacebuilding efforts, there is a need to provide opportunities for them to acquire skills and knowledge related to peacebuilding. This can be achieved through training programs, workshops, and mentorship programs that equip young people with skills in conflict resolution, mediation, negotiation, and communication. 

Address Structural Barriers to Youth Participation: Structural barriers, such as poverty, lack of access to education, and limited economic opportunities, can hinder youth participation in peacebuilding. Addressing these barriers is crucial to promote the meaningful participation of young people in peacebuilding. The government and civil society organizations can address these barriers by providing scholarships, vocational training, and entrepreneurial support to young people. There needs to be a societal reframing toward a greater acceptance of youth who have become microbes to foster their reintegration into Ivorian society.

Foster Dialogue Between Youth and Other Stakeholders to Build Intergenerational Trust: Dialogue is crucial to building trust and fostering collaboration between young people and other stakeholders in peacebuilding efforts. The government and civil society organizations should create platforms for dialogue between young people, community leaders, traditional authorities, and other stakeholders. 

Recognize the Diversity of Youth Perspectives: Young people in Côte d'Ivoire have diverse perspectives on peace and security issues. To ensure that all voices are heard, the government and civil society organizations should recognize and respect the diversity of youth perspectives. This can be achieved by creating inclusive spaces for young people to express their views and opinions, not just regardless of their gender, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic status, but with special emphasis on these differing identities to create spaces of holistic and versatile policy-making/peacebuilding programming.

Promoting youth participation in peacebuilding and implementing the YPS agenda is crucial for sustainable peace and development in Côte d'Ivoire. To achieve this, there is a need to increase youth representation in decision-making processes, provide opportunities for youth to build peacebuilding skills, address structural barriers to youth participation, foster dialogue between youth and other stakeholders, and recognize the diversity of youth perspectives. By engaging youth in peacebuilding efforts, they can contribute to the creation of inclusive societies and help prevent the recurrence of conflict. In this regard, the YPS agenda can serve as a vital tool for building and sustaining peace in Côte d'Ivoire and other conflict-affected countries. It is crucial for policy makers, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders to prioritize youth engagement in peacebuilding efforts and ensure that their needs and perspectives are taken into account as opposed to focusing on stemming “violent youths.”

About the author

Katha Ray is currently a second-year Master’s in International Affairs candidate at Columbia SIPA, concentrating in Human Rights Policy and specializing in Gender and International Conflict Resolution. Katha has previously worked as a youth peacebuilder in India and conducted research at the intersection of gender, youth-led peacebuilding, and human rights. She has worked collaboratively with numerous organizations including Interpeace, International Civil Society Action Network (ICAN), and the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative among others.

Endnotes

  1. “‘My Heart Is Cut:’ Sexual Violence by Rebels and Pro-Government Forces in Côte d'Ivoire,” Human Rights Watch, March 28, 2023, https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/08/02/my-heart-cut/sexual-violence-rebels-and-pro-government-forces-cote-divoire. 

  2. “Global Overview 2011: People internally displaced by conflict and violence - Côte d'Ivoire,” Norwegian Refugee Council/Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (NRC/IDMC), April 19, 2012, https://www.refworld.org/docid/4f97fb6328.html.

  3. Sebastien Hervieu, "The Microbes of Abidjan," Enact Africa, 2022, https://enactafrica.org/research/research-papers/the-microbes-of-abidjan. 

  4. “Stemming youth violence in Côte d’Ivoire,” International Development Research Centre, https://idrc-crdi.ca/sites/default/files/sp/Documents%20EN/safecities_cote_divoire_web.pdf. 

  5. “Resolution 2250,” United Nations Security Council, adopted December 9, 2015, https://undocs.org/S/RES/2250(2015).

  6.  “World Report 2012: Côte d'Ivoire,” Human Rights Watch, 2012, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2012/country-chapters/cote-divoire.

  7. The Prosecutor v. Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé ICC-02/11-01/15, International Criminal Court, 2015, https://www.icc-cpi.int/cdi/gbagbo-goude.

  8. “Ivory Coast election: Alassane Ouattara wins second term,” BBC News, October 28, 2015, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34655049.

  9. “World Report 2012: Côte d'Ivoire.”

  10. Ibid.

  11. “Beyond Ideology and Greed: Trajectories of Young People Towards New Forms of Violence in Côte d'Ivoire and Mali,” Interpeace, October 2016, https://www.interpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/2016-Au-del%C3%A0-de-lid%C3%A9ologie-et-de-lapp%C3%A2t-du-gain-ExecSum-ENG-002.pdf. 

  12. Ibid.

  13. “The Microbes of Abidjan.”

  14. Ibid.

  15. Ibid.

  16. Interview, Francis Akindès, Sociologist at Félix Houphouët- Boigny University, Abidjan, 6 April 2021 as cited in “The Microbes of Abidjan.”

  17. “Beyond Ideology and Greed.”

  18. Maxime Ricard and Kouame Felix Grodji, “Collaborative Policing and Negotiating Urban Order in Abidjan,” Africa Security Brief, no. 40, November 2021, pp. 1-8, https://africacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/ASB-40-EN.pdf.

  19. “Warning over rampaging youth gangs in Abidjan,” The New Humanitarian, August 18, 2014, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2014/08/18/warning-over-rampaging-youth-gangs-abidjan. 

  20. “The Youth, Peace and Security Agenda,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/policy-issues-and-partnerships/policy/youth.

  21. “Implementing the Youth, Peace and Security Agenda at Country-level: A Guide for Public Officials,” Global Coalition on Youth, Peace, and Security, February 7, 2022, https://www.youth4peace.info/YPSguide_pulic_officials.

  22. “Resolution 2419,” United Nations Security Council, adopted June 6, 2018, https://undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=S%2FRES%2F2419(2018)&Language=E&DeviceType=Desktop&LangRequested=False. 

  23. “Resolution 2535,” United Nations Security Council, adopted July 14, 2020, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3872061?ln=ru.

  24. “The Power of 1.8 Billion: Adolescents, Youth and the Transformation of the Future,”  United Nations Population Fund, 2014, https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/EN-SWOP14-Report_FINAL-web.pdf.

  25. “Evidence from Around the World: Youth, Peace, and Security,” Search for Common Ground, September 2019, https://documents.sfcg.org/youth-peace-security-act/YPS_Case_Statement_October_2019.pdf. 

  26. Graeme Simpson, “The Missing Peace, A Progress Study on Youth, Peace and Security,” United Nations Population Fund, 2018, https://www.youth4peace.info/system/files/2018-10/youth-web-english.pdf.

  27. “Young People’s Participation in Peacebuilding: A Practice Note,” Inter-Agency Network on Youth Development Working Group on Youth and Peacebuilding, January 2016, https://www.youth4peace.info/system/files/2016-10/PRACTICE%20NOTE%20-%20Young%20People%27s%20Participation%20in%20Peacebuilding%20(2016).pdf.

  28. Simpson, “The Missing Peace.”

  29. “The Microbes of Abidjan.”

  30. “Beyond Ideology and Greed.”

  31. “Africa’s youth and prospects for inclusive development,” United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, February 2017, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Youth/UNEconomicCommissionAfrica.pdf. 

  32. Simpson, “The Missing Peace.”

  33. “Implementing the Youth, Peace and Security Agenda at Country-level.”

  34. John Paul Lederach, “Resources: Making Peace Possible,” in Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2002), p. 95.

  35. Pamina Firchow, “Measuring Peace,” in Reclaiming Everyday Peace: Local Voices in Measurement and Evaluation after War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), p. 26.

  36. “Beyond Ideology and Greed.”

  37. Ibid.

  38. “Côte d’Ivoire Youth Find Voice Through Storytelling,” International Center for Transitional Justice, October 27, 2016, https://www.ictj.org/news/cote-divoire-youth-political-voice-stories-war.

  39. H. Saunders, “Commit to People, Commit to Time,” in A Handbook of International Peacebuilding: Into the Eye of the Storm, ed. John Paul Lederach and Janice Moomaw Jenner (Jossey-Bass, 2022), p. 292.

ArticleYale Journal of International AffairsFall 2023, Africa